In much the same way we had to push GE and the EPA and the Massachusetts agencies to fully recognize the extent of the PCB contamination, we had to pressure them to acknowledge the significant numbers of GE employees, and local residents who were suffering adverse health effects from their exposure to PCBs.

We began first by listening to those who worked with PCBs, those who lived with them, the residents who had played in contaminated soil, those who watched their friends and neighbors die too soon.

We asked Lakewood residents to stick a pin into a neighborhood map if they or any of their relatives had developed or died from cancer

Those who worked at GE breathed in the persistent fumes, stuck their arms up to their elbows in PCB oil, slogged through a foot of PCB oil on the floor. The men and women who worked with transformers and capacitors were never offered the option of changing out of their everyday clothes for more protective uniforms. And so they came home with oil-soaked clothes which went into the family washing machine with all the other clothes.

Lakewood residents shared with us the smell of heated PCB oil that hung over their neighborhood. Meanwhile Puff the Magic Dragon burned the PCB oil that was being pumped up from the underground plume/lake that was located beneath their neighborhood. A GE worker told us that the incinerator burned so hot it had destroyed the sensor that was to register what was coming out of the stack. Depending on the weather and the wind, the smoke would linger atop the Newell Street neighborhood.

Those plumes ion PCB-contaminated oil infiltrated the basements of local businesses and homes. Deno Renieri, a retired GE worker, lived up the block from the plant on Newell Street, bordering the Housatonic. He took the sewer cover off to show Mickey Friedman the lake of oil that had migrated from Building 100 to the River.

Over the course of forty years we’ve watched as scientists better appreciated the damage PCBs and dioxins did and better understood that even the smallest dose of exposure was dangerous. Here are some facts to consider. 

According to the World Health Organization: “Dioxins and dioxin-like substances, including PCBs, are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) covered by the Stockholm Convention. They can travel long distances from the source of emission, and bioaccumulate in food chains.
Human exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like substances has been associated with a range of toxic effects, including chloracne; reproductive, developmental and neurodevelopmental effects; immunotoxicity; and effects on thyroid hormones, liver and tooth development. They are also carcinogenic. Developmental effects in males are the most sensitive toxic end-point, making children – particularly breastfed infants – the population most at risk.” 

https://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/dioxins/en/

The Center for Health, Environment & Justice, in its PCBs Factsheet offers some insight into the
health effects of PCBs, including concern about exposure in our schools: “The manufacture of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was stopped by the U.S. federal government in 1977 because of their harmful health effects and because PCBs are extremely persistent and last for decades in the environment. Unfortunately, PCBs remain in various forms in buildings created before 1979, such as PCB oils in school lighting ballast fixtures.

People are exposed to PCBs by three routes, ingestion such as eating PCB-contaminated fish, skin or dermal absorption and inhalation when PCB’s off-gas into the air. In schools, the most important route of exposure is inhalation as PCBs evaporate into the air. For instance, in New York City, some schools were found to have PCB concentrations in the air as high as 670,000 parts per million. Dr. David Carpenter, a national expert on PCBs, told the New York City Department of Education that “the health effects associated with exposure of children, teachers and school staff are serious and merit immediate removal of these sources of contamination.”

Health Effects of PCBs
A growing number of studies have found serious health effects from exposure to PCBs.
Cancer: PCBs are likely to cause cancer and are classified as a “probable carcinogen” by the federal Environmental Protection Agency and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In addition, a study found children’s risk of developing acute lymphocytic leukemia, increased by two-fold when PCBs were detected in the dust of a room in which the child spent a significant amount of time.
Immune System: PCBs suppress the immune system and thyroid function.
Heart Disease: PCBs cause an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes. Hormonal Impacts: PCBs can alter the sex hormone systems, and have been found to lower the age at which a girl reaches puberty  and can reduce the levels of the male hormone, testosterone.
Asthma: PCBs cause an overall increased risk of asthma and other infectious respiratory diseases. More specifically, children have an increased risk of asthma and other infectious respiratory diseases when exposed to persistent organic pollutants, including PCBs.

Birth Weight & Infant Motor Skills: Women who are exposed to PCBs have babies that weigh slightly less than babies from women who have not been exposed. In addition, children born to women who ate PCB- contaminated foods have abnormal responses in tests of infant behavior, including problems with motor skills and a decrease in short-term memory.
Ability to Learn: PCBs are associated with cognitive problems and a reduction in the ability to learn and remember. For example, children who are exposed to PCBs before birth through maternal consumption of PCB contaminated fish were found to have a 6.2-point IQ deficit as compared to non-exposed children. Other studies have reported reduced alertness and increased tiredness in association with PCBs.

 http://chej.org/wp-content/uploads/Health-Effects-of-PCBs-Fact-Sheet.pdf

Health Effects of Environmental Endocrine Disrupters

The greater an individual’s exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs), the greater the risk of chronic disease, with the most concern for children, pregnant women, and anyone with a compromised immune system.

By Amy Hess-Fischl MS, RD, LDN, BC-ADM, CDE and Jodi Godfrey, MS, RD With Vincenzo Marotta, MD

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are environmental chemicals that mimic, block, or interfere with hormones in the body. Increasing exposure to  EDCs over the past 20 years appear responsible for the growing number of people with infertility, diabetes, early onset of puberty in girls and early menopause in women, cancer, birth defects, and neurobehavioral disorders, according to a statement issued by the Endocrine Society and IPEN, a global network of more than 500 public interest NGOs in more than 100 countries around the world.

These environmental toxins have been found in our air, water, and soil as well as in a range of household products, including children’s toys, furniture, and beauty products. While it is not clear exactly how many EDCs exist, the most common EDCs include:

• Bisphenol A (BPA) used in certain children’s toys, plastic bottles, and food containers, food can linings, and cash register receipts
• Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT, which is now banned) and other pesticides
• Flame retardants used in certain furniture and floor coverings
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which were used in electronics and building materials before being banned at the end of the 1970s
• Phthalates in beauty products and plastics
• Triclosan used in antibacterial products

Known EDCs such as PCBs, BPA, and phthalates are found in blood, fat, and umbilical cord blood samples taken from people around the world. While some EDCs (eg, DDT and PCBs) have been banned, these chemicals may remain in the environment and food supply for decades. Some EDCs may be stored in fat cells for years after exposure and may be passed on to children during pregnancy or when breastfeeding.

In contrast, BPA does not accumulate in the body, and studies have shown that minimizing the use of canned foods and plastic containers can reduce BPA levels found in the body. However, BPA is still used in so many products that the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has estimated that more than 96% of Americans have BPA in their bodies.2

The Impact of EDCs on Hormones, and Health

Endocrine disrupting chemicals may bind to an endocrine hormone’s receptor, activating the hormone’s production and triggering physiological processes. Conversely, some EDCs block endocrine hormones by binding to their receptors and blocking normal activation even in the presence of the natural hormones.

The concern has grown since even a low level of exposure to EDCs can affect body functions, particularly in the most vulnerable populations including infants and children, pregnant women, and those who are immune compromised or frail.

Of particular note, recent studies have shown the following:

• Exposure to pesticides like DDT can increase the risk for cardiovascular disease and inflammation in women who are premenopausal.
• Exposure to BPA has been linked to an increased risk of infertility, cancer, and metabolic disorders, including diabetes.
• Exposure to BPA during pregnancy may increase offspring’s risk for developing diabetes or cardiovascular disease later in life.
• Early onset of menopause has been linked to 15 chemicals, including phthalates and PCBs.
• PCBs can interfere with thyroid hormone action in pregnant women, which may affect brain development in fetuses.
• Men, women, and children exposed to high levels of phthalates may have reduced levels of testosterone.
• Exposure to EDCs has been estimated to cost between 150-260 billion euros per year in the European Union due to contributing to a number of diseases and health conditions.

Two Endocrine Disrupters Linked to Thyroid Cancer

A red flag has just been raised about the potential for harm from exposure to two common pollutants: bisphenol AF (BPA) and phytates (diethylhexylphthalate). In a study published in Chemosphere, the authors evaluated the blood levels of more than 14 EDCs and found a significant link between these two endocrine disrupters and thyroid cancer.12 

The researchers identified 55 patients from five different medical sites across Italy who were seeking treatment for thyroid nodules; their blood was evaluated for levels of these EDCs.12  What they found was in patients with high levels of both BPA and phthalates in their blood, there was a dose-response effect regarding the development differentiated thyroid cancer.  No effect was found with the patient’s level of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

In fact, the risk of developing thyroid cancer appears 14-fold higher in the individuals who have been exposed to low doses of these environmental toxins, according to Dr. Vincenzo Marotta, the lead study author, who is an oncologist from  IRCCS National Cancer Institute in Naples, Italy.

https://www.endocrineweb.com/professional/other-endocrine-disorders/health-effects-environmental-endocrine-disrupters

From the Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine

https://www.pediatrics.emory.edu/centers/pehsu/concern/pcb.html#howcan

How can my child or I be exposed to PCBs?

Because of their tendency to persist in the environment, small amounts of PCBs are present in almost all outside air, inside air, water, soil, and plants. Possible sources of exposure include:

An important route of environmental PCB exposure is through the diet, especially milk (breast and dairy), fish, and other meats.

One reason for this is that PCBs tend to be stored in fatty materials such as meat. Since breast milk contains fat, nursing infants may be exposed to relatively high PCB levels from breast milk.

Another reason is that PCBs tend to accumulate in the body. Fish caught from PCB- contaminated waters tend to have higher levels of PCBs than the smaller fish or plant material they eat. When a pregnant mother eats these fish, these PCBs are once again poorly eliminated from the body. This phenomenon is called bioconcentration.

Air

Increased exposure to PCBs may occur through breathing indoor air in buildings that have electrical appliances that use PCBs. 

PCBs may be found in old fluorescent lighting fixtures and old appliances such as television sets and refrigerators. When they get hot during use, these products may leak small amounts of PCBs into the air. 

Also, higher levels of exposure can occur in outdoor air close to certain hazardous waste facilities. 

Water

Exposure to PCBs can occur through various sources of contaminated water including wells, surface water, swimming areas, etc.

Since PCBs cannot dissolve well in water, these sources of exposure are not considered nearly as important as the diet. 

Soil

As mentioned, very small amounts of PCBs are found in almost all soils.

Over the years HRI was fortunate to invite some of America’s most respected experts on PCBs to come to Berkshire County. Other times we prevailed on EPA to bring their experts to talk to the community. Jim Cogliano of US EPA shared his expertise. Here is some of what he wrote about PCB exposure:

Assessing the Cancer Risk from Environmental PCBs
Vincent James Cogliano
US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment 1998
Download and read here:
JimCogliano98PCBs

In May 2018, the US ATSDR offered a course for medical professionals working in Environmental Medicine. It is one of the more succinct and useful presentations about the health dangers of PCBS. Here are some selections:

“PCBs are chemicals formed by attaching one or more chlorine atoms (at the Xs in Figure 1 below) to a pair of connected benzene rings.

“Depending on the number and position of chlorine atoms attached to the biphenyl ring structure, 209 different PCB congeners can be formed. PCB congeners can be divided into the coplanar, the mono-ortho-substituted PCBs, and other non-dioxin-like PCBs. The significance of this designation is that coplanar and some of the mono-ortho-substituted PCBs have dioxin-like toxicologic effects.

“The chlorination pattern of the PCBs determines the toxicity of the substance. A number of PCB congeners show dioxin-like toxicity. These PCBs have no more than one chlorine atom at the ortho-position (polychlorinated non-ortho and mono-ortho biphenyls). The phenyl rings of these molecules can rotate and adopt a coplanar structure, which leads to the same toxicity as the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The toxic effects of these dioxin-like PCBs are discussed in detail in later sections of this document.

“A number of PCB congeners, however, have two or more of the ortho-positions in the biphenyl molecules occupied by chlorine molecules. For these, the two phenyl rings are not in the same plane, and these PCBs express non-dioxin-like toxicity.

“Commercial PCB products are mixtures of different PCB congeners and contain small amounts of PCDFs or PCDDs. Contamination is a concern because the toxicity of these contaminants is generally much greater than that of PCBs [ATSDR 2000].

“Because of their insulating and nonflammable properties, PCBs were marketed for nearly 50 years between 1929 and 1977. They were used in making

• Diffusion pump oils,
• Extenders for pesticides,
• Heat exchange and dielectric fluids in transformers and capacitors,
• Hydraulic and lubricating fluids, and
• As ingredients in caulking compounds, paints, adhesives, flame retardants, and plasticizers.

“In 1977, the United States banned production of PCBs because of their potential carcinogenicity.

“No known natural sources of PCBs exist. The United States banned production of these chemicals in 1977, when their ability to accumulate in the environment and to cause harmful effects became apparent [ATSDR 2000]. Today, the major source of exposure to ambient PCBs is environmental cycling of PCBs previously released into the environment.

“Between 1929 and 1977, more than 1.25 billion pounds of PCBs were produced in the United States [ATSDR 2000]. PCBs can be released into the general environment by or from

• Disposal of PCB-containing consumer products in municipal landfills
• Illegal or improper dumping of waste that contained PCBs, such as transformer fluids
• Leaks (fugitive emissions) from electrical transformers and capacitors containing PCBs
• Poorly maintained toxic waste sites
• Once released into the environment, PCBs
  • bioaccumulate and biomagnify as they move up the food chain,
  • degrade relatively slowly, and
  • are cycled and transported within the ecosystem

[ATSDR 2000; Safe 2007].

“PCBs have been identified in at least 500 of the 1,598 hazardous waste sites on the EPA’s National Priorities List, and low levels of PCBs can be found throughout the world [ATSDR 2000].

“Once released into the environment, PCBs adsorb strongly to soil and sediment. As a result, these compounds tend to persist in the environment, with half-lives for most congeners ranging from months to years. PCBs leach from soil slowly, particularly the more highly chlorinated congeners, and translocate to plants via soil insignificantly.

“Cycling of PCBs through the environment involves volatilization from land and water surfaces into the atmosphere, with subsequent removal from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition, then revolatilization. In the general population, inhalation of these airborne PCBs is one route of exposure, in addition to the food source of exposure to PCBs.

“The highest human exposures to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) occur via the consumption of contaminated fish and, in certain occupational settings, via contact with equipment or materials made before 1977.

“Recent studies indicate that maternal consumption of PCB-contaminated fish can cause disturbances in reproductive parameters and neurobehavioral and developmental deficits in newborns and older children.

“Evidence shows that exposures to high concentrations of PCBs cause adverse dermal effects in humans. On the basis of sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and experimental animals, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified PCBs as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) ….

“Older electrical transformers and capacitors can contain PCBs as a dielectric and heat-transfer fluid. Leaks in this equipment could allow PCBs to volatilize under conditions of increased temperature. A person with chronic exposure to the vapors or residue could eventually receive a significant PCB dose through both dermal and inhalation routes.

“Notably, potential carcinogenicity is the main reason PCB production was banned in the United States. EPA has determined that PCBs are probable human carcinogens and has assigned them the cancer weight-of-evidence classification B2. DHHS concluded that PCBs are reasonably anticipated to be carcinogenic in humans, based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals. In February 2013, 26 experts from 12 countries met at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France, to reassess the carcinogenicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). On the basis of sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and experimental animals, the IARC classified PCBs as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). The classification is based on consistent association between PCB exposure and increased risk of melanoma in humans.

“In addition to possible dermal and inhalation exposure, the patient might be exposed by consuming contaminated fish, a potential source of PCBs.

“Select laboratories have the capability to perform PCB analyses on human tissue. The lipophilic nature of PCBs causes them to accumulate in fat; consequently, analysis of adipose tissue obtained by biopsy has been advocated as a measure of long-term exposure. Serum PCB analysis, which is less invasive than fat biopsy, is readily available. Health risks are not consistent necessarily with PCB levels, but a serum measurement is useful for gauging the patient’s exposure.

“A correlation between increasing levels of serum PCBs and dermatologic findings, including chloracne, has not been found consistently in human epidemiologic studies. However, statistically significant associations between dermatologic effects and plasma levels of higher chlorinated PCB congeners have been reported.

“PCB compounds generally can be found at the parts per trillion (ppt) levels in the lipid stores of humans, especially persons living in an industrialized society. The general population is exposed to PCB compounds primarily through the ingestion of high-fat foods such as dairy products, eggs, animal fats, and some fish and wildlife [CDC 2009b; Hopf et al. 2009; Patterson et al. 2008]. By comparison, the case study patient’s PCB serum level of 125 ppb is consistent with PCB exposure as a cause for his unusual acne, and PCB exposure might be contributing to the hepatic effects noted.

“The first objective should be to stop the exposure. In this case, the patient should stay away from the basement until the transformer is repaired and the basement area is cleaned by a professional familiar with PCB removal. He should also check with his state advisory on PCB-fish contamination and not eat fish from contaminated areas until his PCB level normalizes and the fish are declared uncontaminated. Many states issue advisories on fish consumption based on where the fish are caught. Fish advisories also provide guidance on how to choose fish that are safer to eat and on safer ways to prepare and cook fish. Avoiding exposure is especially important because no specific treatment exists for PCB accumulation. The need to avoid other hepatotoxic substances, including ethanol, should be stressed. Confirmation of exposure with a serum PCB level should be obtained.

ATSDR points to several areas of special concern:

“Children of mothers who eat large quantities of contaminated fish may be exposed to PCBs prenatally and while breastfeeding.

“Several studies have reported that prenatal exposure to PCBs has been confirmed among children of consumers of contaminated fish and certain other groups [Fein et al. 1984; Jacobson JL et al. 1990b; Jacobson SW et al. 1985; Swain and Swain 1991]. Other studies have indicated that lactating women whose diets are high in PCB-contaminated fish potentially can increase the PCB exposure for their breastfeeding infants [Dewailly et al. 1989; Fitzgerald et al. 1998; Greizerstein et al. 1999; Rogan et al. 1985]. Fetuses and neonates are more sensitive to PCBs than are adults. During these early life stages, the hepatic microsomal enzyme systems that facilitate the metabolism and excretion of PCBs are not fully functional.

“Farmers and their families who consume PCB-contaminated food via their own farm-raised beef and dairy cattle may be exposed.

“During the 1940s and 1950s, the insides of concrete silos on many farms in the Midwest United States were coated with sealants containing PCBs. Over time, these sealants peeled off and became mixed with silage used to feed beef and dairy cattle. Farmers and their families who lived on these farms and who regularly ate farm- raised beef and dairy products were exposed to PCBs. Although most of these silos have been dismantled and removed, the remaining silos represent a potential source of exposure to PCBs [Hansen 1987; Humphrey 1983; Schantz et al. 1994].

“Persons living near incinerators, other PCB- disposal facilities, or NPL hazardous waste sites where PCBs have been detected may be exposed.

Persons living near incinerators, other PCB-disposal facilities, or any of the 500 current or former hazardous waste sites on the NPL sites where PCBs have been found may be also at increased risk for exposure to PCBs [ATSDR 1987; Hazdat 2000; Hermanson and Hites 1989; Robertson and Ludewig 2011; Stehr-Green et al. 1988; Wester et al. 1993].

“Persons with Impaired Hepatic Function

“PCBs are metabolized mainly in the liver, thus, persons with impaired hepatic function might be at increased risk because their ability to detoxify and excrete these compounds is diminished.

“Persons with incompletely developed glucuronide conjugation mechanisms (such as Gilbert syndrome or Crigler-Najjar syndrome) have impaired liver function, as do persons with chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis B [Calabrese et al. 1977; Lester et al. 1964].

“Similarly, because hepatic function normally declines with age, elderly persons may be more susceptible to the effects of exposure to PCBs.

“Children’s Susceptibility

“Infants and young children consume a greater amount of food per kilogram of body weight than do adults. Therefore, they have proportionately greater exposure to PCBs than do adults eating food with the same level of contamination [ATSDR 2000]. In addition, as mentioned earlier, fetuses and neonates are potentially more sensitive to PCBs than are adults because their hepatic microsomal enzyme systems that facilitate the metabolism and excretion of PCBs are not fully functional … 

“Absorption and Distribution

“Humans can absorb PCBs by the Inhalation, Oral, and Dermal routes of exposure.

Although PCBs are readily absorbed into the body, they are slowly metabolized and excreted.

PCBs initially distribute preferentially to the liver and muscle tissue.

PCBs, especially the highly chlorinated congeners, tend to accumulate in lipid-rich tissues due to their lipophilic nature. Greater relative amounts of PCBs are usually found in

• Adipose tissue,
• Breast milk,
• The liver, and 
• Skin [ATSDR 2000; Matthews et al. 1984] …    

Environmental Alteration of PCB Mixtures

Environmental PCBs occur as mixtures whose compositions differ from the commercial mixtures. This is because after release into the environment, PCB mixture composition changes over time through chemical transformation and preferential bioaccumulation [Cogliano 1998].

Chemical transformation can occur through biodegradation of PCB mixtures in the environment. PCBs with higher chlorine content are extremely resistant to oxidation and hydrolysis.

Preferential bioaccumulation occurs in living organisms. Bioaccumulation through the food chain tends to concentrate congeners of higher chlorine content. In humans, bioaccumulated PCBs also appear to be more persistent in the body [Hovinga et al. 1992]. This is significant because bioaccumulated PCBs appear to be more toxic than original Aroclors in animals [Aulerich et al. 1986; Cogliano 1998].

What Are Adverse Health Effects of PCB Exposure?

Human exposures to relatively high levels of PCBs have occurred primarily in persons working in plants that extensively manufactured and used PCBs and PCB- containing equipment. Occupational exposure to PCBs can result in a broad spectrum of effects that includes

• Increased levels of some liver enzymes, with possible hepatic damage,
• Chloracne and related dermal lesions, and
• Respiratory problems [Alvares et al. 1977; Chase et al. 1982; Emmett and Emmett 1985; Lawton et al. 1985; Meigs 1954; Ouw et al. 1976; Safe S 1993; Warshaw et al. 1979].

Potential adverse human health effects of low-level environmental exposure to PCBs are complex and still need further validation [Safe SH 2007].

In animal studies, commercial PCBs elicit a broad range of toxic responses including:

• Acute lethality,
• Body weight loss,
• Carcinogenesis,
• Dermal toxicity,
• Fatty liver,
• Genotoxicity,
• Hepatomegaly,
• Immunosuppressive effects,
• Neurotoxicity,
• Porphyria, Reproductive and developmental toxicity,
• Thymic atrophy, and Thyroid hormone-level alterations.

Carcinogenic Effects

Epidemiologic studies have raised concerns about the potential carcinogenicity of PCBs.

A retrospective analysis of a study of two plants that manufactured electrical capacitors in the United States found a significant increase in the incidence of cancer. The primary target tissues for the cancers were the liver, gallbladder, and biliary tract [Brown 1987].

Likewise, an increased incidence of melanomas associated with exposure to PCBs has also been observed for workers who manufactured capacitors [Bahn et al. 1976; Ruder et al. 2006; Sinks et al. 1992]. Sinks et al. [1992] observed the increased risks for brain cancer among workers exposed to PCBs in an electrical capacitor manufacturing plant in Indiana, and this finding has been further confirmed by a recent study from Ruder et al. [2006].

One study suggests that exposure to electrical insulating fluids, for which the main constituent is PCBs, may cause malignant melanoma of the skin [Loomis et al. 1997].

The results of a mortality study of workers employed between 1944 and 1977 at an electrical capacitor manufacturing plant were recently reported. The report pointed out that PCBs alone or in combination with other chemicals could be associated with increased risks for

• Liver or biliary,
• Stomach, intestinal, and
• Thyroid cancers [Mallin et al. 2004].

A recent analysis of a cohort of 24,865 capacitor- manufacturing workers exposed to PCBs at three plants showed evidence of associations between cumulative exposure to PCBs and increased total cancer and intestinal cancer mortality among female long-term workers and excess myeloma for male long-term workers [Ruder et al. 2014].

In contrast, increased cancer incidence was not observed in male workers who manufactured capacitors in Sweden exposed to PCBs for an average of 6.5 years [Gustavsson et al. 1986]. The results from the Swedish study, however, cannot rule out the possibility of a carcinogenic risk from PCB exposure because of the small size of the cohort and relatively brief follow-up period.

Different mixtures of PCBs had different potencies and, thus, different toxicity. As noted previously, PCB mixtures found in the environment are different from commercial PCB mixtures. EPA agreed that some mixtures of PCBs are more likely to cause cancer than others, and found that all PCBs mixtures can cause cancer [Cogliano 1998; EPA 1996c].

In environmental case-control studies that compared PCB concentrations in breast tissue in both women with (case patients) and without (case controls) breast cancer, some studies reported higher levels of total PCBs among case patients than control patients [Falck et al. 1992; Guttes et al. 1998; Wassermann et al. 1976]. Other studies found no elevated PCB levels in breast tissue in patients with breast cancer [Aronson et al. 2000; Liljegren et al. 1998; Unger et al. 1984]. A recent occupational cohort study found no overall elevation in breast cancer risk after occupational exposure to PCBs [Silver et al. 2009].

In persons without known occupational exposure to PCBs, elevations of PCB level in the adipose tissue and serum have been associated with an increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) [De Roos et al. 2005; Engel et al. 2007; Hardell E et al. 2001; Hardell L et al. 1996; Rothman et al. 1997].

After registering as Yusho victims, 887 male and 874 female patients were observed for an average 11 years. A retrospective study found statistically significant increased liver cancer mortality rates among the males compared to national liver cancer mortality rates [Kuratsune et al. 1987].

A retrospective mortality study of 1940 Yu-Cheng cases found no statistically significant increased mortality from liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancers [Hsieh et al. 1996].

Before the comprehensive study conducted by Mayes et al. [1998], only commercial mixtures 60% chlorinated had been tested, and controversy existed about whether mixtures with lower chlorine content were carcinogenic. The Mayes et al. study [Mayes et al. 1998] supported the position that all PCB mixtures can cause cancer. Data from animal studies have shown that PCBs cause gastrointestinal tract tumors, hepatocarcinomas, leukemia, lymphomas, and pituitary tumors [ATSDR 2000].

On the basis of these laboratory data, EPA has determined that PCBs are probable human carcinogens and has assigned them the cancer weight-of-evidence classification B2 [IRIS 2012]. DHHS concluded that PCBs are reasonably anticipated to be carcinogenic in humans based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals [NTP 2011].

In February 2013, 26 experts from 12 countries met at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France, to reassess the carcinogenicity of PCBs. The Working Group considered more than 70 independent epidemiological studies with informative data for carcinogenicity of PCBs in human beings. On the basis of sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and experimental animals, the IARC classified PCBs as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). The classification is based on consistent association between exposure to PCBs and increased risk of melanoma in humans [IARC 2013].

Other Effects

Occupational and epidemiologic studies have suggested or demonstrated other adverse health effects from exposure to PCBs. These health effects can involve the:

• Cardiovascular,
• Gastrointestinal,
• Immune,
• Musculoskeletal, and
• Neurological systems.

In southwest Quebec, adults who ate fish from PCB- contaminated waters had

• Significantly greater motor retardation,
• Poorer results on certain memory and attention tests, and
• Higher scores on a standardized confusion scale than did control adults.

These neurological deficits were directly related to the frequency of fish consumption [Mergler et al. 1998].

Immune system effects reported in PCB-exposed populations include alterations in the ratio of helper to killer (CD4+/CD8+) T-cells, decreases in IgA and IgM antibody levels, decreases in monocyte and granulocyte counts, and decreases in natural killer cell count [Svensson et al. 1994].

In the Yusho and Yu-Cheng populations, the immunosuppressive effects of PCB exposure were associated with an increased incidence of persistent respiratory infection and enhanced responsiveness to mitogens [Guo et al. 1995].

Appetite loss has been reported in transformer and electrical equipment manufacturing workers exposed to various PCB-containing mixtures. Other nonspecific gastrointestinal symptoms experienced by workers exposed to PCBs include nausea, epigastric distress and pain, and intolerance to fatty foods [Emmett et al. 1988; Smith et al. 1982].

A recent study has indicated that several PCB metabolites induce gene mutations, chromosome breaks, chromosome loss and polyploidization in cells in culture and even provided the first evidence that a PCB congener is mutagenic in vivo [Robertson and Ludewig 2011].

For those of you who want to do further research, here’s a list of the sources ATSDR relied on:

References AAP. 2003. Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dibenzofurans, and Dibenzodioxins. Handbook of Pediatric Environmental Health (21):215-22.

Alaspaa AO, Kuisma MJ, Hoppu K, et al. Out-of-hospital administration of activated charcoal by emergency medical services. Annals of Emergency Medicine 45(2):207-12 [updated 2005 February 2; accessed 2014 February 01]. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S01960644 04012077

Allen JR. 1975. Response of the nonhuman primate to polychlorinated biphenyl exposure. Federation Proceedings 34(8):1675-9.

Alvares AP, Fischbein A, Anderson KE, et al. 1977. Alterations in drug metabolism in workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 22(2):140-6.

Anderson HA, Falk C, Hanrahan L, et al. 1998. Profiles of Great Lakes critical pollutants: a sentinel analysis of human blood and urine. The Great Lakes Consortium. Environmental Health Perspectives 106(5):279-89.

Anonymous. 1997. Position paper of the American Council on Science and Health: public health concerns about environmental polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Ecotoxicology & Environmental Safety 38(2):71-84.

Arnold DL, Mes J, Bryce F, et al. 1990. A pilot study on the effects of Aroclor 1254 ingestion by rhesus and cynomolgus monkeys as a model for human ingestion of PCBs. Food & Chemical Toxicology 28(12):847-57.

Aronson KJ, Miller AB, Woolcott CG, et al. 2000. Breast adipose tissue concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and other organochlorines and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 9(1):55-63.

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To download and read the ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine – Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Toxicity

ATSDRCaseStudy

We recently came across a December 2019 review of a recent study by Boston University School of Public Health (BUSPH) that we think will be of great concern to those living near to the Housatonic River. 

https://www.news-medical.net/news/20191203/Study-estimates-health-effects-of-breathing-airborne-PCBs-around-New-Bedford-Harbor.aspx

Study estimates health effects of breathing airborne PCBs around New Bedford Harbor

Reviewed by Kate Anderton, B.Sc. (Editor)

December 3, 2019

The levels of PCBs in the air are high enough to affect thyroid hormones in people who reside close to the harbor, raising the risk of diabetes, low birth weight, and impaired neurodevelopment.

A new Boston University School of Public Health (BUSPH) study indicates that the contaminated water of New Bedford Harbor may pose an airborne health hazard for residents living nearby in Acushnet, Dartmouth, Fairhaven, and New Bedford. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) declared the southeastern Massachusetts harbor a Superfund site and has been cleaning up sediment contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) since the 1990s, focusing efforts on PCB levels in the sediment and in fish consumed from the harbor, and associated cancer risks.

But the new study, published in Science of the Total Environment, is the first to estimate the non-cancer health effects of breathing airborne PCBs around the harbor, namely thyroid hormone effects.

Residents have been concerned about the air for over a decade. Our study shows that they are correct to be concerned. It also indicates that it’s important to monitor the PCBs in air as a measure of a successful cleanup.

Dr. Wendy Heiger-Bernays, the study’s corresponding author and a clinical professor of environmental health at BUSPH

By request from community members, the researchers previously measured airborne PCB levels in various locations around the harbor in 2015 and 2016, including during a period of hydraulic dredging as part of the site’s cleanup. For the new study, the researchers estimated the health effects of these measurements. The EPA has no published guidelines for the amount of PCBs in air that might be safe to breathe, so the BUSPH team used evidence from other researchers’ rodent studies to develop a human-equivalent estimate of the likelihood of different levels of airborne PCB exposure to cause “unreasonable risk” as the EPA defines it. They found that the airborne PCB levels were high enough to potentially affect the thyroid hormones of residents, particularly those living within 625 meters (0.4 miles) of the harbor.

In addition to cancers, residents have been very concerned about other health problems that are not typically considered by health agencies when regulating exposures. Although clean-up of the harbor is nearly complete, and some may feel this is ‘too little too late,’ we hope our results can inform other settings where inhaled PCBs are a risk, so that subtler human health risks are factored into the equation.

Dr. Madeleine Scammell, associate professor of environmental health at BUSPH and co-lead of the study

To download and read the article:

AirbornePCBSNewBedford

You might also be interested in the work Senator Market (D-MA) has done on the continuing threat PCBs pose to our schoolchildren:

https://www.ewg.org/research/report-highlights-widespread-pcb-contamination-schools

WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 5, 2016

By Olga V. Naidenko, Ph.D, Senior Science Advisor for Children’s Environmental Health, and Melanie Benesh, J.D., Legislative Attorney

DANGEROUS MONSANTO CHEMICAL REMAINS IN THOUSANDS OF SCHOOLS

As many as 26,000 U.S. schools serving up to 14 million students may be contaminated with unsafe concentrations of toxic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) leaching from caulks, sealants, and other aging building materials and fixtures, according to a recent study by scientists at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.[1]

Sen. Edward Markey, D-Mass., analyzing the Harvard findings, has calculated that up to 30 percent of American children in elementary, middle and high school may still be exposed to these dangerous industrial chemicals, despite a 1976 ban by Congress. PCBs were the only family of chemicals for which such action has been taken.   

PCBs, manufactured from the 1920s to the 1970s by Monsanto, were once used as insulators for electrical equipment, oils for hydraulic systems and motors, plasticizers in paints and caulks, components of fluorescent light fixtures, and ingredients in consumer products such as carbonless copy paper.   

The World Health Organization categorizes PCBs as carcinogens. These chemicals can also cause a variety of health problems, harm to the immune system, neurological damage, learning deficits, lowered birth weight and decreased thyroid hormone function. 

School children are most often exposed to these chemicals by old, PCB-laden caulk and outdated fluorescent light ballasts. They may also come in contact with PCBs that migrated into paint, floor finishes or soil outside. 

According to data the Environmental Protection Agency provided to Markey’s office, which was also analyzed by EWG, over the past 10 years the EPA has received 286 reports of potential PCB contamination in school buildings in 20 states. These incidents ranged from the removal of a single fluorescent light fixture to large-scale remediation undertaken by some of the nation’s largest school districts. Moreover, an unknown but probably substantial number of students and teachers in numerous colleges and universities come into frequent contact with PCB-laden materials.

Dr. Robert Herrick, the primary author of the Harvard study, stated:

These data demonstrate that PCBs in schools are a national problem. And while the scope of the problem remains poorly characterized, it is clear that where people look for PCBs in schools, they are very likely to find them. The presence of PCB contamination in our schools causes elevated blood PCB levels among both teachers and students. The effect of these PCBs on the health of people in these buildings has never been studied, but given the evidence that PCBs cause cancer, and reproductive and developmental problems, it is essential that this source of PCB exposure be eliminated from our schools.

Not long after Monsanto started producing PCBs, the company discovered they were health hazards, but hid that information from the public and regulators. This began a decades-long cover-up, the likes of which is unmatched in the annals of corporate environmental malfeasance, and was not fully revealed until internal company documents were unearthed in lawsuits. In 2003, thousands of these documents were made public in EWG’s Chemical Industry Archives, which documented the shocking story of Monsanto’s callous poisoning of Anniston, Ala.

The most urgent questions surround possible contamination in the tens of thousands of schools that may not have been tested for PCBs, but are at risk for having them. Any school building constructed between the 1950s and the late 1970s could test positive for these chemicals, potentially endangering the health of students and teachers. Schools built in this time frame should test for PCBs in caulk, dust and in the air. School systems with old fluorescent light fixtures should develop disposal and replacement plans.

Dr. David Carpenter, director of the Institute for Health and the Environment at the University of Albany and one of the nation’s leading researchers of PCB impacts on human health, stated:

PCBs are known to cause a reduction in learning ability and IQ. The last thing you want in a school is to have children exposed to a neurotoxic chemical that will reduce their ability to learn. PCBs in materials like caulk or leaking fluorescent light ballasts slowly volatilize, and children and teachers will inhale these vapor-phase PCBs continuously while in a PCB-contaminated school.

Caulk made in the 1950s to 1970s commonly contained PCBs. The material can break down to release PCBs that can migrate into air and adjacent structural materials such as bricks, mortar, concrete and soil. Under EPA regulations, materials with more than 50 parts per million of PCBs must be removed or properly remediated. In recent tests at two schools in Malibu, Calif., caulk concentrations of PCBs up to 570,000 parts per million have been found, vastly exceeding the EPA limit.[2]

Earlier this month, in response to a citizen’s suit filed by parents of school children against the Santa Monica-Malibu school district, a federal judge in Los Angeles ordered all PCBs removed from two Malibu schools.[3]

However, the EPA does not require schools to test for the presence of PCBs. No national database exists that summarizes whether buildings were tested, levels of PCBs in caulk detected in various buildings that were tested, the remediation measures undertaken and whether these measures were effective.  

Even when school systems remove caulk and other PCB-laden materials, the chemicals may linger in other adjacent materials, such as wooden window frames, brick and stucco, which is why confirmation testing after PCB removal is essential.   

The EPA acknowledges that all fluorescent lights that contain PCBS currently in use have exceeded their designated life spans. It is unknown how many of these light fixtures have already been removed and how many remain in use. These lights are at a heightened risk of rupture, leaching and crumbling, increasing the chance of subsequent PCB exposure for people in the buildings. Cleanup costs after a rupture could be significant. 

The EPA recommends that any fluorescent light fixture that contains PCBs should be removed.[4] But the agency does not require removal unless PCB-contaminated liquid is leaking out of the light fixture.

The EPA also recommends schools should remove caulk, paint and other building materials that contain PCBs  during renovations and repairs.[5] While planning for long-term remediation, school administrators may consider mitigation measures such as covering a PCB-containing material with another material, a process known as encapsulation.[6] However, scientists do not know whether covering PCB sources such as caulk, contaminated masonry, or wood, can effectively contain the spread of PCBs.[7] According to Herrick, the Harvard scientist, “The verdict on PCB encapsulation is still out and school administrators should approach it very cautiously.”

Children may be exposed to a wide range of environmental hazards in schools – not only PCBs but also asbestos, radon, mold, cleaner chemicals, pesticides, and lead in drinking water. Like PCBs, asbestos and radon are still found in schools across the nation.[8] A 2012 report by CNN estimated that one-third of U.S. schools have mold, dust and other indoor air pollution problems.[9]

With the exception of asbestos, in most cases schools are not required to regularly monitor or remediate these environmental hazards, nor are they required to even notify parents that these hazards may exist. While this report focuses on the health risks of PCBs in schools, American school systems and the communities that support them need a substantial investment in school infrastructure to eliminate many types of environmental hazards.

 

 

1 Robert F. Herrick et al. 2016. Review of PCBs in US Schools: A Brief History, an Estimate of the Number of Impacted Schools, and an Approach for Evaluating Indoor Air Samples. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(3):1975-1985.

2 Complaint at 30, Am. Unites for Kids v. Lyon, 2016 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 118447 (C.D. Cal. Sept. 1, 2016) (No. CV 15-2124). See also, Susan Klosterhaus et al. 2014. Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Exterior Caulk of San Francisco Bay Area Buildings, California, USA. Environment International, (66):38–43.

3 Am. Unites for Kids v. Lyon, No. CV 15-2124, 2016 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 118447 (C.D. Cal. Sept. 1, 2016).

4 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB)-Containing Fluorescent Light Ballasts (FLBs) in School Buildings. Available at: www.epa.gov/pcbs/polychlorinated-biphenyl-pcb-containing-fluorescent-light-ballasts-flbs-school-buildings

5 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Fact Sheet on Practical Actions for Reducing Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in Schools and Other Buildings. July 28, 2015. Available at: www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-03/documents/practical_actions_for_reducing_exposure_to_pcbs_in_schools_and_other_buildings.pdf

6 Kathleen W. Brown et al. 2016. PCB Remediation in Schools: A Review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23:1986-1997.

7 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Laboratory Study of Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Contamination in Buildings: Evaluation of the Encapsulation Method. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-08/documents/pcb_encapsulation_fs.pdf

8 Report written by the staff of Senator Edward J. Markey using the responses from a survey sent by Senator Markey and Senator Barbara Boxer. Failing the Grade: Asbestos in America’s Schools. December 2015. Available at www.markey.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/2015-12-Markey-Asbestos-Report-Final.pdf. See also, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. Radon in Schools. Available at www.epa.gov/radon/radon-schools

9 David S. Martin, Are Schools Making Kids Sick? CNN, Jan. 14, 2012. Available at www.cnn.com/2012/01/14/health/school-indoor-air-pollution/index.html

Dr. David Carpenter, one of America’s most respected experts on PCBs, was generous enough to come multiple times to speak to Berkshire audiences:

 

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Endocrine Disruption

At TEDX we published scientific reviews, commentaries, and original research. Many of our publications were conducted in collaboration with other scientists. We used our expertise to answer important research questions and support informed decision making. Our work is used by government and non-government organizations to protect health by reducing harmful chemicals in our indoor and outdoor environments, and the womb.